Table of Contents
About the Authors v
Preface xvii
Chapter 1 Overview of Clinical Phonetics 1
Welcome 1
Clinical Phonetics 1
The Knowledge Domain of Clinical Phonetics 1
The Skill-Based Domain of Clinical Phonetics 2
Conclusion 3
Chapter Summary Exercises 3
Chapter 2 Linguistic Phonetics 5
Language, Speech, and Dialect 5
The Morpheme 6
The Phoneme 7
Spelling versus Phonetic Transcription 7
The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) 8
Phonemes and Allophones 9
Phonetics and Phonology 10
The Syllable 10
Positional and Contextual Terminology for Phonetic Descriptions 11
Conclusion 11
Chapter Summary Exercises 11
Chapter 3 The Three Systems of Speech Production 15
The Respiratory System 15
The Laryngeal System 16
The Supralaryngeal System 18
Velopharynx: Velum and Pharyngeal Walls 19
Jaw 20
Tongue 20
Lips 22
Technologies for the Study of Phonetics 23
X-ray Imaging 23
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 24
Electromagnetic Articulography 25
Ultrasound 25
Electropalatography 26
Fiberoptic Endoscopy 26
Aerodynamic Analysis 26
Acoustic Analysis 26
Conclusion 28
Chapter Summary Exercises 28
Chapter 4 Vowels: Monophthongs and Diphthongs 31
Vowel Articulation 31
Tongue Height 32
Tongue Advancement (the Front–Back Dimension of Tongue Position) 33
Tenseness or Length 34
Lip Configuration 35
Vowel Description: Tongue Height, Tongue Advancement, Tenseness, and Lip Rounding 37
The Front Vowels 37
Vowel /i/ (He) 38
Vowel /8/ (Hid) 38
Vowel /3/ (Chaotic—First Syllable) 39
Vowel /2/ (Head) 40
Vowel /q/ (Had) 40
The Back Vowels 41
Vowel /u/ (Who) 41
Vowel /7/ (Hook) 42
Vowel /o/ (Hoe) 42
Vowel /9/ (Hall) 43
Vowel /e/ (Hot) 44
The Central Vowels 44
Vowel /4/ (Hub) 45
Vowel /1/ (Above, Sometimes Called Schwa) 46
Vowel /6/ (Her) 46
Vowel /5/ (Mother, Sometimes Called Schwar) 47
Diphthong Articulation 48
Diphthong /e]/ (Bye) 49
Diphthong /9]/ (Boy) 51
Diphthong /e[/ (Bough) 51
Diphthong /3]/ (Bay) 52
Diphthong /o[/ (Bow) 52
R-colored Vowels 53
R-colored Vowel /e r/ (Far) 53
R-colored Vowel /9 r/ (Four) 53
R-colored Vowel /8 r/ (Fear) 54
R-colored Vowel /2 r/ (Fair) 54
Special Notes on the Phonetic Properties of Vowels 55
Some Cautions about Vowel Terminology 55
Tongue and Jaw Interaction 55
Lip and Jaw Interaction 55
Some Common Articulatory Modifications of English Vowels 57
Nasalization 57
Reduction 57
Other Modifications 58
Allographs of English Vowels 58
Frequency of Occurrence for English Vowels 58
Vowels around the World 59
The Acoustic Properties of Vowels 60
The Vocal Tract as a Resonator 60
Primary Acoustic Properties of Vowels 64
Conclusion 65
Chapter Summary Exercises 65
Chapter 5 Consonants 67
Manner of Articulation 68
Stops 68
Fricatives 69
Affricates 69
Nasals 70
Liquids 70
Glides 71
Place of Articulation 71
Bilabials 72
Labiodentals 73
Interdentals (or Dentals) 74
Alveolars 74
Palatals 77
Velars 79
Glottals 80
The Voicing Contrast 80
Summary of Manner, Place, and Voicing 82
Manner of Articulation 82
Place of Articulation and Voicing 83
Allographs of the Consonant Phonemes of English 85
Frequency of Occurrence and Place of Articulation 85
Summary Classification of Consonants 86
Consonant Acoustics 87
Acoustic Features of Consonant Classes 88
Sounds in Sequence 91
Conclusion 92
Chapter Summary Exercises 92
Chapter 6 Suprasegmentals and Prosody 95
The Units of Prosody 95
Syllables 95 The Prosodic Foot 98
The Intonational Phrase 99
Intonation 99
Stress 100
Lexical Stress 100
Stress beyond the Word Level 102
Timing 103
Tempo 103
Pause (Juncture) 103
Boundary or Edge Effects 103
Timing, Juncture, and Intonation Symbols 104
Lengthened [s iQ] 104
Shortened [w i W] 104
Close Juncture [e] d 8 d 8 t] 104
Open Juncture [1 n e] s + m q n] versus [1 n + e] s m q n] 104
Internal Open Juncture [l 2 t s h 2 l p R j 3] n] 104
Falling Terminal Juncture [t 7 d 3] T] 105
Rising Terminal Juncture [t 7 d 3] Y] 105
Checked or Held Juncture [t 7 d 3] U] 105
Selected Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet 105
Paralinguistics 105
Examples of Prosodic Variations 106
Motherese 106
Clear Speech 106
Other Prosodic Variations 106
Role of Prosody in Typical and Atypical Development of Speech and Language 106
Clinical Assessment of Suprasegmentals 108
Prosody Profile (PROP) 108
Prosody-Voice Screening Profile (PVSP) 108
Profiling Elements of Prosodic Systems—Child Version (PEPS-C) 109
Conclusion 109
Chapter Summary Exercises 109
Chapter 7 Narrow Transcription 111
Coarticulation 111
Uses of Narrow Transcription 112
Conventions for Diacritic Marks in This Text 114
Onglide and Offglide Symbols 114
Nasal Symbols 114
Nasalized [b q! d] 114
Nasal Emission [s@ m e] l] 116
Denasalized [r q# n] 116
Lip Symbols 116
Rounded (or Protruded) Vowel [s w i$ t] 116
Unrounded (or Unprotruded) Vowel [h u% ] 117
Labialized Consonant [k^ w i n] 117
Nonlabialized Consonant [w& i d] 117
Inverted Lip [b* i n] 117
Tongue Symbols 117
Dentalized [w 8 dI '] 117
Palatalized [sO i l] 118
Lateralized [sP l i p] 118
Retroflex (or Rhotacized) [h e r c{ 5] 119
Velarized [f i l}] 119
Fronted or Advanced [p e E t] 120
Retracted [b qA t] 120
Raised [b 2F d] 121
Lowered [h 2G d] 121
Derhotacized [rK 2 d] 121
Sound Source Symbols 122
Partially Voiced [q b sL 1 n t] 122
Partially Devoiced [d 9 g:] 123
Glottalized (or Creaky Voice) [b e" k s] 123
Breathy (or Murmured) [p l 3Z] 8 a] 123
Whistled (or Hissed) [sC i] 124
Trilled [th rV e]] 124
Syllabic Symbol 124
Stop Release Symbols 124
Aspirated [t( e p] 124
Unaspirated [s t) e p] 125
Unreleased [l q p_] 125
Frictionalized (or Spirantized) [s tX e p] 125
Other Symbols 126
Synchronic Tie [d+z u] 126
Unintelligible Syllable [\] 126
Questionable Segment e| or =| 126
Conclusion 126
Chapter Summary Exercises 126
Chapter 8 Practicing Broad and Narrow Phonetic Transcription of Children’s Speech 129
Part A: Transcription of Vowel Sound Changes 129
Background Information 129
Training Modules 130
Vowels Module 1: Vowel Substitutions 130
Vowels Module 2: Vowel Modifications 130
Vowels Module 3: Central Vowels 130
Vowels Module 4: Vowel Substitutions, Modifications, and Central Vowels 131
Vowels Module 5: Vowel Additions 131
Vowels Module 6: Vowel Lengthening 132
Vowels Module 7: Vowel Nasalization 132
Vowels Module 8: Summary Quiz 133
Part B: Transcription of Stop Sound Changes 133
Background Information 133
Description of Stops 133
Training Modules 134
Stops Module 1: Stop Substitutions 134
Stops Module 2: Voicing of Voiceless Stops 134
Stops Module 3: Devoicing of Voiced Stops 135
Stops Module 4: Glottal Stop Substitutions 135
Stops Module 5: Stop Deletions 135
Stops Module 6: Frictionalized Stops 136
Stops Module 7: Summary Quiz 136
Part C: Transcription of Nasal Sound Changes 136
Background Information 136
Description and Distribution of Nasals 136
Training Modules 137
Nasals Module 1: Nasal Deletions 137
Nasals Module 2: Summary Quiz 137
Part D: Transcription of Fricative and Affricate Sound Changes 137
Background Information 138
Description of Fricatives 138
Distribution and Frequency of Occurrence of Fricatives 138
Training Modules 139
Overview 139
Fricatives and Affricates Module 1: /f/ and /v/ Changes 139
Fricatives and Affricates Module 2: /h/ Deletions 139
Fricatives and Affricates Module 3: Voiceless and Voiced Interdental Changes 140
Fricatives and Affricates Module 4: Fricative and Affricate Voicing Changes 140
Fricatives and Affricates Module 5: Fricative and Affricate Substitutions 140
Fricatives and Affricates Module 6: Dentalized Sibilants 141
Fricatives and Affricates Module 7: Lateralized Sibilants 141
Fricatives and Affricates Module 8: Retroflexed and Palatalized Sibilants 142
Fricatives and Affricates Module 9: Sibilants Quiz 142
Fricatives and Affricates Module 10: Summary Quiz 142
Part E: Transcription of Glide and Liquid Sound Changes 142
Background Information 142
Description of Glides and Liquids 142
Distribution and Frequency 143
Training Modules 143
Glides and Liquids Module 1: Glide Changes 143
Glides and Liquids Module 2: /l/ Substitutions 143
Glides and Liquids Module 3: Velarized /l/ 143
Glides and Liquids Module 4: Derhotacized /r/, /6/, /5/ 144
Glides and Liquids Module 5: /r/ Quiz 144
Glides and Liquids Module 6: Velarized /r/ 144
Glides and Liquids Module 7: Summary Quiz 145
Grand Quiz 145
Chapter 9 Preparing to Collect and Transcribe Clinical Speech Samples 147
Eliciting and Recording Speech Samples 147
Eliciting the Sample 147
The Recording Environment 148
Recording Equipment 148
Factors that Influence Scoring and Transcription 149
Client Factors 149
Task Factors 150
Approaches to Clinical Transcription and Scoring 151
Transcription and Scoring Systems 151
What Level of Detail Should Be Represented? 151
The Process of Scoring or Transcription 152
Should I Use Video Recording? 152
Should I Use Headphones? 152
Should I Preview the Recording? 152
What if I’m Not Sure What I’m Hearing? 153
How Many Times Should I Listen? 153
What Are Some Strategies for Difficult Words? 153
Some Final Suggestions 154
Conclusion 154
Chapter 10 Phonetics in the Clinical Setting 155
Single-Word Tests of Articulation and Phonology 155
Transcribing Nonwords 156
Two-Way Scoring and Deep Testing 156
Two-Way Scoring in Larger Speech Samples 157
Scoring /s/ in Continuous Speech 157
Scoring Rhotics in Continuous Speech 158
Transcription in Larger Speech Samples 159
Transcribing Imitated Phrases 159
Transcribing Read Sentences 160
Transcribing All Sounds in Continuous Speech 160
Transcribing Children with Motor Speech Disorders 162
Motor Speech Disorders: Imitated Single Words 163
Motor Speech Disorders: Imitated Words in Phrases 163
Motor Speech Disorders: Imitated Sentences 164
Motor Speech Disorders: Conversational Speech 166
Conclusion 167
Chapter 11 Phonetic Variation 169
Part A: Phonetic Aspects of Dialect Variation 169
What is Phonetic Variation? 169
Dialect as a Source of Phonetic Variation 170
Studying Dialect 170
Is There a Standard Dialect? 170
Why Do Dialects Differ? 171
Difference versus Disorder 172
Part B: Regional Dialects of American English 172
Southern Dialect Region 172
Location 172
Major Features 173
Western Dialect Region 174
Location 174
Major Features 174
Midlands Dialect Region 175
Location 175
Major Feature 175
Northern Dialect Regions 176
Location 176
Major Features 176
Dialects of the Northeastern United States 177
Location 177
Major Features 177
Practice Discriminating Regional Variation in Vowels 178
Regional Variation in Consonants 178
International Englishes 179
Part C: Beyond Regional Dialects 180
African American English 180
Origins of AAE 181
Features of AAE 182
L1-Influenced English 184
Working with Speakers from Unfamiliar Language Backgrounds 184
Spanish-Influenced English 185
Features of Spanish-Influenced English 185
Conclusion 187
Further Reading 188
Other Resources 188
Transcription Exercises 189
Appendix A Phonetics Symbols and Terms 309
Appendix B Distributional, Structural, and Proportional Occurrence Data for American English Sounds, Syllables, and Words 317
Glossary 325
Answers to Exercises 333
References 345
Index 353
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