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PART I. INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN LEARNING Chapter 1. Perspectives on Learning The Importance of Learning Defining Learning Determining When Learning Has Occurred Research, Principles, and Theories How Theories of Learning Have Evolved over Time Advantages of Theories Potential Drawbacks of Theories A Perspective on Theories and Principles Applying Knowledge about Learning to Instructional Practice Overview of the Book Summary Chapter 2. Learning and the Brain Basic Building Blocks of the Human Nervous System Neurons Synapses Glial Cells Brain Structures and Functions Methods in Brain Research Parts of the Brain The Left and Right Hemispheres Interconnectedness of Brain Structures Development of the Brain Prenatal Development Development in Infancy and Early Childhood Development in Middle Childhood, Adolescence, and Adulthood Factors Influencing Brain Development To What Extent Are There Critical Periods in Brain Development? To What Extent Is the Brain “Prewired” to Know or Learn Things? The Physiological Basis of Learning Educational Implications of Brain Research Summary PART II. BEHAVIORIST VIEWS OF LEARNING Chapter 3. Behaviorism and Classical Conditioning Basic Assumptions of Behaviorism Classical Conditioning The Classical Conditioning Model Classical Conditioning in Human Learning Common Phenomena in Classical Conditioning Cognition in Classical Conditioning Changing Undesirable Conditioned Responses Educational Implications of Behaviorist Assumptions and Classical Conditioning Summary Chapter 4. Instrumental Conditioning Thorndike’s Early Research Rewards and Reinforcement Skinner’s Operant Conditioning The Various Forms That Reinforcement Can Take Punishment Effective Forms of Punishment Ineffective Forms of Punishment Common Phenomena in Instrumental Conditioning Superstitious Behavior Shaping Chaining Extinction Effects of Reinforcement Schedules Avoidance Learning Effects of Antecedent Stimuli and Responses in Instrumental Conditioning Cueing Setting Events Generalization Stimulus Discrimination Behavioral Momentum Cognition and Motivation in Instrumental Conditioning Summary Chapter 5. Applications of Instrumental Conditioning Applying Behaviorist Principles to Classroom Management Concerns about Using Reinforcement and Punishment in the Classroom Using Reinforcement to Increase Desirable Behaviors Strategies for Decreasing Undesirable Behaviors Applied Behavior Analysis Using Applied Behavior Analysis with Large Groups Adding a Cognitive Component to ABA Instructional Objectives Behavioral Objectives Current Perspectives on Instructional Objectives Usefulness and Effectiveness of Objectives Formulating Different Levels of Objectives Programmed Instruction and Computer-Assisted Instruction Effectiveness of PI and CAI Mastery Learning Keller’s Personalized System of Instruction (PSI) Effectiveness of Mastery Learning and PSI When Behaviorist Techniques Are Most Appropriate Summary PART III. SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY Chapter 6. Social Cognitive Theory General Principles of Social Cognitive Theory Environmental Factors in Social Learning: Revisiting Reinforcement and Punishment Problems with a Strict Behaviorist Analysis of Social Learning Cognitive Factors in Social Learning Reciprocal Causation Modeling How Modeling Affects Behavior Characteristics of Effective Models Behaviors That Can Be Learned through Modeling Conditions Necessary for Effective Modeling to Occur Self-Efficacy How Self-Efficacy Affects Behavior and Cognition Factors in the Development of Self-Efficacy Self-Regulation Elements of Self-Regulation Promoting Self-Regulated Behavior The Cognitive Side of Self-Regulation Educational Implications of Social Cognitive Theory Summary PART IV. COGNITIVE VIEWS OF LEARNING Chapter 7. Introduction to Cognitivism Edward Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism Gestalt Psychology Verbal Learning Research Introduction to Contemporary Cognitivism General Assumptions of Cognitive Theories Information Processing Theory Constructivism Contextual Theories Integrating Cognitive Perspectives General Educational Implications of Cognitive Theories Summary Chapter 8. Basic Components of Memory A Dual-Store Model of Memory Sensory Register Moving Information to Working Memory: The Role of Attention Working Memory Moving Information to Long-Term Memory: Connecting New Information with Prior Knowledge Long-Term Memory Challenges to the Dual-Store Model Are Working Memory and Long-Term Memory Really Different? Is Conscious Thought Necessary for Long-Term Memory Storage? Alternative Views of Human Memory Levels of Processing Activation Remembering That The Map Is Not the Territory Generalizations about Memory and Their Educational Implications Summary Chapter 9. Long-Term Memory I: Storage and Encoding Construction in Storage Examples of Construction in Action Long-Term Memory Storage Processes Selection Rehearsal Meaningful Learning Internal Organization Elaboration Visual Imagery How Procedural Knowledge Is Acquired Does New Knowledge Require a Consolidation Period? Factors Affecting Long-Term Memory Storage Working Memory Prior Knowledge Prior Misconceptions Expectations Verbalization Enactment Repetition and Review Promoting Effective Storage Processes Some Final Remarks about Long-Term Memory Storage Summary Chapter 10. Long-Term Memory II: The Nature of Knowledge The Various Kinds of Knowledge Declarative and Procedural Knowledge Explicit and Implicit Knowledge How Knowledge Is Encoded in Long-Term Memory Encoding in Terms of Physical Characteristics Encoding in Terms of Actions Encoding in Terms of Symbols Encoding in Terms of Meanings Different Forms of Encoding Are Not Mutually Exclusive The Organization of Long-Term Memory Long-Term Memory as a Hierarchy Long-Term Memory as a Network Parallel Distributed Processing Concepts Theories of Concept Learning Factors Facilitating Concept Learning Schemas and Scripts Personal Theories Personal Theories versus Reality Fostering Theory Development Worldviews The Challenge of Conceptual Change Promoting Conceptual Change Development of Expertise Generalizations about the Nature of Knowledge Summary Chapter 11. Long-Term Memory III: Retrieval and Forgetting How Retrieval Works Retrieval Cues Construction in Retrieval The Power of Suggestion: Effects of Subsequently Presented Information Constructing Entirely New “Memories” Remembering Earlier Recollections Self-Monitoring During Retrieval Important Cautions in Probing People’s Memories Forgetting Decay Interference and Inhibition Repression Failure to Retrieve Construction Error Failure to Store or Consolidate The Case of Infantile Amnesia General Principles of Retrieval for Instructional Settings Summary PART V. DEVELOPMENTAL AND CONTEXTUAL PERSPECTIVES Chapter 12. Cognitive-Developmental Perspectives Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Key Ideas in Piaget’s Theory Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Current Perspectives on Piaget’s Theory Capabilities of Different Age-Groups Effects of Experience and Prior Knowledge Effects of Culture Views on Piaget’s Stages Neo-Piagetian Theories of Cognitive Development Case’s Theory Implications of Piagetian and Neo-Piagetian Theories Summary Chapter 13. Sociocultural Theory and Other Contextual Perspectives Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development Key Ideas in Vygotsky’s Theory Comparing Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories Current Perspectives on Vygotsky’s Theory Social Construction of Meaning Scaffolding Participation in Adult Activities Apprenticeships Acquisition of Teaching Skills Dynamic Assessment Adding a Sociocultural Element to Information Processing Theory Intersubjectivity Social Construction of Memory Collaborative Use of Cognitive Strategies Expanding the Contextualist Framework General Implications of Sociocultural and Contextualist Theorists Peer-Interactive Instructional Strategies Class Discussions Reciprocal Teaching Cooperative Learning Peer Tutoring Communities of Learners Technology-Based Collaborative Learning Summary PART VI. COMPLEX LEARNING AND COGNITION Chapter 14. Metacognition, Self-Regulated Learning, and Study Strategies Metacognitive Knowledge and Skills Self-Regulated Learning The Roots of Self-Regulated Learning Effective Learning and Study Strategies Meaningful Learning and Elaboration Organization Note Taking Identifying Important Information Summarizing Comprehension Monitoring Mnemonics Development of Metacognitive Knowledge and Skills Epistemic Beliefs Developmental and Cultural Differences in Epistemic Beliefs Effects of Epistemic Beliefs The Intentional Learner Why Students Don’t Always Use Effective Strategies Promoting Effective Learning and Study Strategies Summary Chapter 15. Transfer, Problem Solving, and Critical Thinking Transfer Types of Transfer Theories of Transfer Factors Affecting Transfer Problem Solving Theories of Problem Solving Cognitive Factors in Problem Solving Problem-Solving Strategies Meaningless Versus Meaningful Problem Solving Facilitating Transfer and Problem Solving in the Classroom Critical Thinking Developmental, Individual, and Cultural Differences in Critical Thinking Fostering Critical Thinking in the Classroom Summary PART VII. MOTIVATION Chapter 16. Motivation and Affect General Effects of Motivation Extrinsic Versus Intrinsic Motivation Basic Human Needs Drive Reduction Arousal Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Competence and Self-Worth Self-Determination Relatedness Individual Differences in Motivation Need for Affiliation Need for Approval Need for Achievement Dispositions Affect and Its Effects How Affect Is Related to Motivation How Affect Is Related to Learning and Cognition Anxiety Creating a Motivating Classroom Environment Summary Chapter 17. Cognitive Factors in Motivation Interests Effects of Interest Factors Promoting Interest Expectancies and Values Effects of Expectancies and Values Factors Influencing Expectancies and Values Goals Achievement Goals Work-Avoidance Goals Social Goals Career Goals Coordinating Multiple Goals Attributions Effects of Attributions Factors Influencing the Nature of Attributions Explanatory Style: Mastery Orientation Versus Learned Helplessness Motivation, Affect, and Self-Regulation How Motivation and Affect Influence Self-Regulation How Self-Regulation Influences Motivation and Affect Internalized Motivation Encouraging Motivating Cognitions A TARGETS Mnemonic for Motivational Strategies Summary Table of Contents
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